Measurements of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agriculture are essential for understanding the complex soil\uffe2\uff80\uff93crop\uffe2\uff80\uff93climate processes, but there are practical and economic limits to the spatial and temporal extent over which measurements can be made. Therefore, N2O models have an important role to play. As models are comparatively cheap to run, they can be used to extrapolate field measurements to regional or national scales, to simulate emissions over long time periods, or to run scenarios to compare mitigation practices. Process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based models can also be used as an aid to understanding the underlying processes, as they can simulate feedbacks and interactions that can be difficult to distinguish in the field. However, when applying models, it is important to understand the conceptual process differences in models, how conceptual understanding changed over time in various models, and the model requirements and limitations to ensure that the model is well suited to the purpose of the investigation and the type of system being simulated. The aim of this paper is to give the reader a high\uffe2\uff80\uff90level overview of some of the important issues that should be considered when modeling. This includes conceptual understanding of widely used models, common modeling techniques such as calibration and validation, assessing model fit, sensitivity analysis, and uncertainty assessment. We also review examples of N2O modeling for different purposes and describe three commonly used process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based N2O models (APSIM, DayCent, and DNDC).This special issue provides an assessment of the contribution of soils to Nature's Contributions to People (NCP). Here, we combine this assessment and previously published relationships between NCP and delivery on the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to infer contributions of soils to the SDGs. We show that in addition to contributing positively to the delivery of all NCP, soils also have a role in underpinning all SDGs. While highlighting the great potential of soils to contribute to sustainable development, it is recognized that poorly managed, degraded or polluted soils may contribute negatively to both NCP and SDGs. The positive contribution, however, cannot be taken for granted, and soils must be managed carefully to keep them healthy and capable of playing this vital role. A priority for soil management must include: (i) for healthy soils in natural ecosystems,protectthem from conversion and degradation; (ii) for managed soils,managein a way to protect and enhance soil biodiversity, health and sustainability and to prevent degradation; and (iii) for degraded soils, restore to full soil health. We have enough knowledge now to move forward with the implementation of best management practices to maintain and improve soil health. This analysis shows that this is not just desirable, it is essential if we are to meet the SDG targets by 2030 and achieve sustainable development more broadly in the decades to come.
This article is part of the theme issue \uffe2\uff80\uff98The role of soils in delivering Nature's Contributions to People\uffe2\uff80\uff99. This theme issue provides an assessment of the contribution of soils to Nature's Contributions to People (NCP). The papers in this issue show that soils can contribute positively to the delivery of all NCP. These contributions can be maximized through careful soil management to provide healthy soils, but poorly managed, degraded or polluted soils may contribute negatively to the delivery of NCP. Soils are also shown to contribute positively to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Papers in the theme issue emphasize the need for careful soil management. Priorities for soil management must include: (i) for healthy soils in natural ecosystems, protect them from conversion and degradation, (ii) for managed soils, manage in a way to protect and enhance soil biodiversity, health, productivity and sustainability and to prevent degradation, and (iii) for degraded soils, restore to full soil health. Our knowledge of what constitutes sustainable soil management is mature enough to implement best management practices, in order to maintain and improve soil health. The papers in this issue show the vast potential of soils to contribute to NCP. This is not only desirable, but essential to sustain a healthy planet and if we are to deliver sustainable development in the decades to come.
This article is part of the theme issue \uffe2\uff80\uff98The role of soils in delivering Nature\uffe2\uff80\uff99s Contributions to People\uffe2\uff80\uff99.Simulation models represent soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in global carbon (C) cycle scenarios to support climate\uffe2\uff80\uff90change studies. It is imperative to increase confidence in long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term predictions of SOC dynamics by reducing the uncertainty in model estimates. We evaluated SOC simulated from an ensemble of 26 process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based C models by comparing simulations to experimental data from seven long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term bare\uffe2\uff80\uff90fallow (vegetation\uffe2\uff80\uff90free) plots at six sites: Denmark (two sites), France, Russia, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The decay of SOC in these plots has been monitored for decades since the last inputs of plant material, providing the opportunity to test decomposition without the continuous input of new organic material. The models were run independently over multi\uffe2\uff80\uff90year simulation periods (from 28 to 80\uffc2\uffa0years) in a blind test with no calibration (Bln) and with the following three calibration scenarios, each providing different levels of information and/or allowing different levels of model fitting: (a) calibrating decomposition parameters separately at each experimental site (Spe); (b) using a generic, knowledge\uffe2\uff80\uff90based, parameterization applicable in the Central European region (Gen); and (c) using a combination of both (a) and (b) strategies (Mix). We addressed uncertainties from different modelling approaches with or without spin\uffe2\uff80\uff90up initialization of SOC. Changes in the multi\uffe2\uff80\uff90model median (MMM) of SOC were used as descriptors of the ensemble performance. On average across sites, Gen proved adequate in describing changes in SOC, with MMM equal to average SOC (and standard deviation) of 39.2 (\uffc2\uffb115.5)\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha compared to the observed mean of 36.0 (\uffc2\uffb119.7)\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha (last observed year), indicating sufficiently reliable SOC estimates. Moving to Mix (37.5\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa016.7\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha) and Spe (36.8\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa019.8\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha) provided only marginal gains in accuracy, but modellers would need to apply more knowledge and a greater calibration effort than in Gen, thereby limiting the wider applicability of models.The importance of soils to society has gained increasing recognition over the past decade, with the potential to contribute to most of the United Nations\uffe2\uff80\uff99 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With unprecedented and growing demands for food, water and energy, there is an urgent need for a global effort to address the challenges of climate change and land degradation, whilst protecting soil as a natural resource. In this paper, we identify the contribution of soil science over the past decade to addressing gaps in our knowledge regarding major environmental challenges: climate change, food security, water security, urban development, and ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Continuing to address knowledge gaps in soil science is essential for the achievement of the SDGs. However, with limited time and budget, it is also pertinent to identify effective methods of working that ensure the research carried out leads to real\uffe2\uff80\uff90world impact. Here, we suggest three strategies for the next decade of soil science, comprising a greater implementation of research into policy, interdisciplinary partnerships to evaluate function trade\uffe2\uff80\uff90offs and synergies between soils and other environmental domains, and integrating monitoring and modelling methods to ensure soil\uffe2\uff80\uff90based policies can withstand the uncertainties of the future.
Highlights
We highlight the contributions of soil science to five major environmental challenges since 2010.
Researchers have contributed to recommendation reports, but work is rarely translated into policy.
Interdisciplinary work should assess trade\uffe2\uff80\uff90offs and synergies between soils and other domains.
Integrating monitoring and modelling is key for robust and sustainable soils\uffe2\uff80\uff90based policymaking.
Meeting end\uffe2\uff80\uff90of\uffe2\uff80\uff90century global warming targets requires aggressive action on multiple fronts. Recent reports note the futility of addressing mitigation goals without fully engaging the agricultural sector, yet no available assessments combine both nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions (reforestation, grassland and wetland protection, and agricultural practice change) and cellulosic bioenergy for a single geographic region. Collectively, these solutions might offer a suite of climate, biodiversity, and other benefits greater than either alone. Nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions are largely constrained by the duration of carbon accrual in soils and forest biomass; each of these carbon pools will eventually saturate. Bioenergy solutions can last indefinitely but carry significant environmental risk if carelessly deployed. We detail a simplified scenario for the United States that illustrates the benefits of combining approaches. We assign a portion of non\uffe2\uff80\uff90forested former cropland to bioenergy sufficient to meet projected mid\uffe2\uff80\uff90century transportation needs, with the remainder assigned to nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions such as reforestation. Bottom\uffe2\uff80\uff90up mitigation potentials for the aggregate contributions of crop, grazing, forest, and bioenergy lands are assessed by including in a Monte Carlo model conservative ranges for cost\uffe2\uff80\uff90effective local mitigation capacities, together with ranges for (a) areal extents that avoid double counting and include realistic adoption rates and (b) the projected duration of different carbon sinks. The projected duration illustrates the net effect of eventually saturating soil carbon pools in the case of most strategies, and additionally saturating biomass carbon pools in the case of forest management. Results show a conservative end\uffe2\uff80\uff90of\uffe2\uff80\uff90century mitigation capacity of 110 (57\uffe2\uff80\uff93178) Gt CO2e for the U.S., ~50% higher than existing estimates that prioritize nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based or bioenergy solutions separately. Further research is needed to shrink uncertainties, but there is sufficient confidence in the general magnitude and direction of a combined approach to plan for deployment now.There is growing international interest in better managing soils to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content to contribute to climate change mitigation, to enhance resilience to climate change and to underpin food security, through initiatives such as international \uffe2\uff80\uff984p1000\uffe2\uff80\uff99 initiative and the FAO's Global assessment of SOC sequestration potential (GSOCseq) programme. Since SOC content of soils cannot be easily measured, a key barrier to implementing programmes to increase SOC at large scale, is the need for credible and reliable measurement/monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) platforms, both for national reporting and for emissions trading. Without such platforms, investments could be considered risky. In this paper, we review methods and challenges of measuring SOC change directly in soils, before examining some recent novel developments that show promise for quantifying SOC. We describe how repeat soil surveys are used to estimate changes in SOC over time, and how long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term experiments and space\uffe2\uff80\uff90for\uffe2\uff80\uff90time substitution sites can serve as sources of knowledge and can be used to test models, and as potential benchmark sites in global frameworks to estimate SOC change. We briefly consider models that can be used to simulate and project change in SOC and examine the MRV platforms for SOC change already in use in various countries/regions. In the final section, we bring together the various components described in this review, to describe a new vision for a global framework for MRV of SOC change, to support national and international initiatives seeking to effect change in the way we manage our soils.", "keywords": ["[SDE] Environmental Sciences", "550", "BULK-DENSITY", "QH301 Biology", "Climate", "[SDV]Life Sciences [q-bio]", "NEW-ZEALAND", "630", "Soil", "NE/M021327/1", "11. Sustainability", "SDG 13 - Climate Action", "AGRICULTURAL SOILS", "SDG 15 - Life on Land", "General Environmental Science", "agriculture", "2. Zero hunger", "Global and Planetary Change", "reporting", "Measurement", "Ecology", "IN-SITU", "Agricultura", "NE/P019455/1", "carbono org\u00e1nico del suelo", "Agriculture", "LAND-USE CHANGE", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "[SDV] Life Sciences [q-bio]", "climate change", "Sustainability", "[SDE]Environmental Sciences", "Carbon Sequestration", "DIFFUSE-REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY", "LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS", "330", "Monitoring", "STOCK CHANGES", "MRV", "secuestro de carbon", "12. Responsible consumption", "QH301", "Greenhouse Gases", "ORGANIC-CARBON", "soil organic matter", "greenhouse gases", "Invited Research Reviews", "Environmental Chemistry", "774378", "SDG 2 - Zero Hunger", "European Commission", "resilience", "Climate Solutions", "Soil organic matter", "Soil organic carbon", "Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)", "Verification", "food security", "15. Life on land", "carbon sequestration", "Sustainable Agriculture", "Carbon", "EDDY-COVARIANCE", "soil organic carbon", "monitoring", "Reporting", "13. Climate action", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "measurement", "verification"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/gcb.14815"}, {"href": "https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/context/rsfac/article/1079/viewcontent/Lini2019b.pdf"}, {"href": "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14815"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Global%20Change%20Biology", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1111/gcb.14815", "name": "item", "description": "10.1111/gcb.14815", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1111/gcb.14815"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2019-10-06T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1111/gcb.14878", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-05-25T16:18:38Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2019-10-22", "title": "Which practices co\u2010deliver food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and combat land degradation and desertification?", "description": "AbstractThere is a clear need for transformative change in the land management and food production sectors to address the global land challenges of climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, combatting land degradation and desertification, and delivering food security (referred to hereafter as \uffe2\uff80\uff9cland challenges\uffe2\uff80\uff9d). We assess the potential for 40 practices to address these land challenges and find that: Nine options deliver medium to large benefits for all four land challenges. A further two options have no global estimates for adaptation, but have medium to large benefits for all other land challenges. Five options have large mitigation potential (>3\uffc2\uffa0Gt CO2eq/year) without adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Five options have moderate mitigation potential, with no adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Sixteen practices have large adaptation potential (>25 million people benefit), without adverse side effects on other land challenges. Most practices can be applied without competing for available land. However, seven options could result in competition for land. A large number of practices do not require dedicated land, including several land management options, all value chain options, and all risk management options. Four options could greatly increase competition for land if applied at a large scale, though the impact is scale and context specific, highlighting the need for safeguards to ensure that expansion of land for mitigation does not impact natural systems and food security. A number of practices, such as increased food productivity, dietary change and reduced food loss and waste, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing\uffe2\uff80\uff90up land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other practices, making them important components of portfolios of practices to address the combined land challenges.This study evaluates the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) under perennial crops across the globe. It quantifies the effect of change from annual to perennial crops and the subsequent temporal changes in SOC stocks during the perennial crop cycle. It also presents an empirical model to estimate changes in the SOC content under crops as a function of time, land use, and site characteristics. We used a harmonized global dataset containing paired\uffe2\uff80\uff90comparison empirical values of SOC and different types of perennial crops (perennial grasses, palms, and woody plants) with different end uses: bioenergy, food, other bio\uffe2\uff80\uff90products, and short rotation coppice. Salient outcomes include: a 20\uffe2\uff80\uff90year period encompassing a change from annual to perennial crops led to an average 20% increase in SOC at 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (6.0\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa04.6\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha gain) and a total 10% increase over the 0\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm soil profile (5.7\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa010.9\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). A change from natural pasture to perennial crop decreased SOC stocks by 1% over 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff922.5\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa04.2\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha) and 10% over 0\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff9213.6\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa08.9\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). The effect of a land use change from forest to perennial crops did not show significant impacts, probably due to the limited number of plots; but the data indicated that while a 2% increase in SOC was observed at 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (16.81\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa055.1\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha), a decrease in 24% was observed at 30\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff9240.1\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa016.8\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). Perennial crops generally accumulate SOC through time, especially woody crops; and temperature was the main driver explaining differences in SOC dynamics, followed by crop age, soil bulk density, clay content, and depth. We present empirical evidence showing that the FAO perennialization strategy is reasonable, underscoring the role of perennial crops as a useful component of climate change mitigation strategies.There is a clear need for transformative change in the land management and food production sectors to address the global land challenges of climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, combatting land degradation and desertification, and delivering food security (referred to hereafter as \uffe2\uff80\uff9cland challenges\uffe2\uff80\uff9d). We assess the potential for 40 practices to address these land challenges and find that: Nine options deliver medium to large benefits for all four land challenges. A further two options have no global estimates for adaptation, but have medium to large benefits for all other land challenges. Five options have large mitigation potential (>3\uffc2\uffa0Gt CO2eq/year) without adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Five options have moderate mitigation potential, with no adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Sixteen practices have large adaptation potential (>25 million people benefit), without adverse side effects on other land challenges. Most practices can be applied without competing for available land. However, seven options could result in competition for land. A large number of practices do not require dedicated land, including several land management options, all value chain options, and all risk management options. Four options could greatly increase competition for land if applied at a large scale, though the impact is scale and context specific, highlighting the need for safeguards to ensure that expansion of land for mitigation does not impact natural systems and food security. A number of practices, such as increased food productivity, dietary change and reduced food loss and waste, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing\uffe2\uff80\uff90up land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other practices, making them important components of portfolios of practices to address the combined land challenges.There is growing international interest in better managing soils to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content to contribute to climate change mitigation, to enhance resilience to climate change and to underpin food security, through initiatives such as international \uffe2\uff80\uff984p1000\uffe2\uff80\uff99 initiative and the FAO's Global assessment of SOC sequestration potential (GSOCseq) programme. Since SOC content of soils cannot be easily measured, a key barrier to implementing programmes to increase SOC at large scale, is the need for credible and reliable measurement/monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) platforms, both for national reporting and for emissions trading. Without such platforms, investments could be considered risky. In this paper, we review methods and challenges of measuring SOC change directly in soils, before examining some recent novel developments that show promise for quantifying SOC. We describe how repeat soil surveys are used to estimate changes in SOC over time, and how long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term experiments and space\uffe2\uff80\uff90for\uffe2\uff80\uff90time substitution sites can serve as sources of knowledge and can be used to test models, and as potential benchmark sites in global frameworks to estimate SOC change. We briefly consider models that can be used to simulate and project change in SOC and examine the MRV platforms for SOC change already in use in various countries/regions. In the final section, we bring together the various components described in this review, to describe a new vision for a global framework for MRV of SOC change, to support national and international initiatives seeking to effect change in the way we manage our soils.This study evaluates the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) under perennial crops across the globe. It quantifies the effect of change from annual to perennial crops and the subsequent temporal changes in SOC stocks during the perennial crop cycle. It also presents an empirical model to estimate changes in the SOC content under crops as a function of time, land use, and site characteristics. We used a harmonized global dataset containing paired\uffe2\uff80\uff90comparison empirical values of SOC and different types of perennial crops (perennial grasses, palms, and woody plants) with different end uses: bioenergy, food, other bio\uffe2\uff80\uff90products, and short rotation coppice. Salient outcomes include: a 20\uffe2\uff80\uff90year period encompassing a change from annual to perennial crops led to an average 20% increase in SOC at 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (6.0\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa04.6\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha gain) and a total 10% increase over the 0\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm soil profile (5.7\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa010.9\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). A change from natural pasture to perennial crop decreased SOC stocks by 1% over 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff922.5\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa04.2\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha) and 10% over 0\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff9213.6\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa08.9\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). The effect of a land use change from forest to perennial crops did not show significant impacts, probably due to the limited number of plots; but the data indicated that while a 2% increase in SOC was observed at 0\uffe2\uff80\uff9330\uffc2\uffa0cm (16.81\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa055.1\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha), a decrease in 24% was observed at 30\uffe2\uff80\uff93100\uffc2\uffa0cm (\uffe2\uff88\uff9240.1\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa016.8\uffc2\uffa0Mg/ha). Perennial crops generally accumulate SOC through time, especially woody crops; and temperature was the main driver explaining differences in SOC dynamics, followed by crop age, soil bulk density, clay content, and depth. We present empirical evidence showing that the FAO perennialization strategy is reasonable, underscoring the role of perennial crops as a useful component of climate change mitigation strategies.Measurements of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agriculture are essential for understanding the complex soil\uffe2\uff80\uff93crop\uffe2\uff80\uff93climate processes, but there are practical and economic limits to the spatial and temporal extent over which measurements can be made. Therefore, N2O models have an important role to play. As models are comparatively cheap to run, they can be used to extrapolate field measurements to regional or national scales, to simulate emissions over long time periods, or to run scenarios to compare mitigation practices. Process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based models can also be used as an aid to understanding the underlying processes, as they can simulate feedbacks and interactions that can be difficult to distinguish in the field. However, when applying models, it is important to understand the conceptual process differences in models, how conceptual understanding changed over time in various models, and the model requirements and limitations to ensure that the model is well suited to the purpose of the investigation and the type of system being simulated. The aim of this paper is to give the reader a high\uffe2\uff80\uff90level overview of some of the important issues that should be considered when modeling. This includes conceptual understanding of widely used models, common modeling techniques such as calibration and validation, assessing model fit, sensitivity analysis, and uncertainty assessment. We also review examples of N2O modeling for different purposes and describe three commonly used process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based N2O models (APSIM, DayCent, and DNDC).Simulation models represent soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in global carbon (C) cycle scenarios to support climate\uffe2\uff80\uff90change studies. It is imperative to increase confidence in long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term predictions of SOC dynamics by reducing the uncertainty in model estimates. We evaluated SOC simulated from an ensemble of 26 process\uffe2\uff80\uff90based C models by comparing simulations to experimental data from seven long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term bare\uffe2\uff80\uff90fallow (vegetation\uffe2\uff80\uff90free) plots at six sites: Denmark (two sites), France, Russia, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The decay of SOC in these plots has been monitored for decades since the last inputs of plant material, providing the opportunity to test decomposition without the continuous input of new organic material. The models were run independently over multi\uffe2\uff80\uff90year simulation periods (from 28 to 80\uffc2\uffa0years) in a blind test with no calibration (Bln) and with the following three calibration scenarios, each providing different levels of information and/or allowing different levels of model fitting: (a) calibrating decomposition parameters separately at each experimental site (Spe); (b) using a generic, knowledge\uffe2\uff80\uff90based, parameterization applicable in the Central European region (Gen); and (c) using a combination of both (a) and (b) strategies (Mix). We addressed uncertainties from different modelling approaches with or without spin\uffe2\uff80\uff90up initialization of SOC. Changes in the multi\uffe2\uff80\uff90model median (MMM) of SOC were used as descriptors of the ensemble performance. On average across sites, Gen proved adequate in describing changes in SOC, with MMM equal to average SOC (and standard deviation) of 39.2 (\uffc2\uffb115.5)\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha compared to the observed mean of 36.0 (\uffc2\uffb119.7)\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha (last observed year), indicating sufficiently reliable SOC estimates. Moving to Mix (37.5\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa016.7\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha) and Spe (36.8\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa019.8\uffc2\uffa0Mg\uffc2\uffa0C/ha) provided only marginal gains in accuracy, but modellers would need to apply more knowledge and a greater calibration effort than in Gen, thereby limiting the wider applicability of models.The importance of soils to society has gained increasing recognition over the past decade, with the potential to contribute to most of the United Nations\uffe2\uff80\uff99 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With unprecedented and growing demands for food, water and energy, there is an urgent need for a global effort to address the challenges of climate change and land degradation, whilst protecting soil as a natural resource. In this paper, we identify the contribution of soil science over the past decade to addressing gaps in our knowledge regarding major environmental challenges: climate change, food security, water security, urban development, and ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Continuing to address knowledge gaps in soil science is essential for the achievement of the SDGs. However, with limited time and budget, it is also pertinent to identify effective methods of working that ensure the research carried out leads to real\uffe2\uff80\uff90world impact. Here, we suggest three strategies for the next decade of soil science, comprising a greater implementation of research into policy, interdisciplinary partnerships to evaluate function trade\uffe2\uff80\uff90offs and synergies between soils and other environmental domains, and integrating monitoring and modelling methods to ensure soil\uffe2\uff80\uff90based policies can withstand the uncertainties of the future.
Highlights
We highlight the contributions of soil science to five major environmental challenges since 2010.
Researchers have contributed to recommendation reports, but work is rarely translated into policy.
Interdisciplinary work should assess trade\uffe2\uff80\uff90offs and synergies between soils and other domains.
Integrating monitoring and modelling is key for robust and sustainable soils\uffe2\uff80\uff90based policymaking.
", "keywords": ["330", "550", "QH301 Biology", "Sustainable Development Goals", "NE/R016429/1", "Urban development", "[SDV.SA.SDS]Life Sciences [q-bio]/Agricultural sciences/Soil study", "01 natural sciences", "333", "Ecosystems", "12. Responsible consumption", "QH301", "11. Sustainability", "SDG 13 - Climate Action", "774378", "Climate change", "SDG 2 - Zero Hunger", "European Commission", "[SDV.SA.SDS] Life Sciences [q-bio]/Agricultural sciences/Soil study", "869625", "SDG 15 - Life on Land", "biodiversity", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences", "2. Zero hunger", "Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)", "NE/P019455/1", "biodiversity; climate change; ecosystems; food security; sustainable development goals; urban development; water security", "Food security", "Biodiversity", "food security", "15. Life on land", "sustainable development goals", "water security", "urban development", "[SHS.SCIPO]Humanities and Social Sciences/Political science", "6. Clean water", "climate change", "13. Climate action", "Water security", "ecosystems", "[SHS.SCIPO] Humanities and Social Sciences/Political science"]}, "links": [{"href": "http://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3157809/1/2021%20Evans%20et%20al%20-%20European%20Journal%20of%20Soil%20Science.pdf"}, {"href": "https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/157184/1/Evans_etal_2021_Decade.pdf"}, {"href": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ejss.13145"}, {"href": "https://doi.org/2164/18196"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/European%20Journal%20of%20Soil%20Science", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "2164/18196", "name": "item", "description": "2164/18196", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/2164/18196"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2021-07-26T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "2164/16986", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"license": "Open Access", "updated": "2026-05-25T16:25:26Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2021-08-08", "title": "Soil-derived Nature's Contributions to People and their contribution to the UN Sustainable Development Goals", "description": "This special issue provides an assessment of the contribution of soils to Nature's Contributions to People (NCP). Here, we combine this assessment and previously published relationships between NCP and delivery on the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to infer contributions of soils to the SDGs. We show that in addition to contributing positively to the delivery of all NCP, soils also have a role in underpinning all SDGs. While highlighting the great potential of soils to contribute to sustainable development, it is recognized that poorly managed, degraded or polluted soils may contribute negatively to both NCP and SDGs. The positive contribution, however, cannot be taken for granted, and soils must be managed carefully to keep them healthy and capable of playing this vital role. A priority for soil management must include: (i) for healthy soils in natural ecosystems,protectthem from conversion and degradation; (ii) for managed soils,managein a way to protect and enhance soil biodiversity, health and sustainability and to prevent degradation; and (iii) for degraded soils, restore to full soil health. We have enough knowledge now to move forward with the implementation of best management practices to maintain and improve soil health. This analysis shows that this is not just desirable, it is essential if we are to meet the SDG targets by 2030 and achieve sustainable development more broadly in the decades to come.
This article is part of the theme issue \uffe2\uff80\uff98The role of soils in delivering Nature's Contributions to People\uffe2\uff80\uff99. This theme issue provides an assessment of the contribution of soils to Nature's Contributions to People (NCP). The papers in this issue show that soils can contribute positively to the delivery of all NCP. These contributions can be maximized through careful soil management to provide healthy soils, but poorly managed, degraded or polluted soils may contribute negatively to the delivery of NCP. Soils are also shown to contribute positively to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Papers in the theme issue emphasize the need for careful soil management. Priorities for soil management must include: (i) for healthy soils in natural ecosystems, protect them from conversion and degradation, (ii) for managed soils, manage in a way to protect and enhance soil biodiversity, health, productivity and sustainability and to prevent degradation, and (iii) for degraded soils, restore to full soil health. Our knowledge of what constitutes sustainable soil management is mature enough to implement best management practices, in order to maintain and improve soil health. The papers in this issue show the vast potential of soils to contribute to NCP. This is not only desirable, but essential to sustain a healthy planet and if we are to deliver sustainable development in the decades to come.
This article is part of the theme issue \uffe2\uff80\uff98The role of soils in delivering Nature\uffe2\uff80\uff99s Contributions to People\uffe2\uff80\uff99.Meeting end\uffe2\uff80\uff90of\uffe2\uff80\uff90century global warming targets requires aggressive action on multiple fronts. Recent reports note the futility of addressing mitigation goals without fully engaging the agricultural sector, yet no available assessments combine both nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions (reforestation, grassland and wetland protection, and agricultural practice change) and cellulosic bioenergy for a single geographic region. Collectively, these solutions might offer a suite of climate, biodiversity, and other benefits greater than either alone. Nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions are largely constrained by the duration of carbon accrual in soils and forest biomass; each of these carbon pools will eventually saturate. Bioenergy solutions can last indefinitely but carry significant environmental risk if carelessly deployed. We detail a simplified scenario for the United States that illustrates the benefits of combining approaches. We assign a portion of non\uffe2\uff80\uff90forested former cropland to bioenergy sufficient to meet projected mid\uffe2\uff80\uff90century transportation needs, with the remainder assigned to nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based solutions such as reforestation. Bottom\uffe2\uff80\uff90up mitigation potentials for the aggregate contributions of crop, grazing, forest, and bioenergy lands are assessed by including in a Monte Carlo model conservative ranges for cost\uffe2\uff80\uff90effective local mitigation capacities, together with ranges for (a) areal extents that avoid double counting and include realistic adoption rates and (b) the projected duration of different carbon sinks. The projected duration illustrates the net effect of eventually saturating soil carbon pools in the case of most strategies, and additionally saturating biomass carbon pools in the case of forest management. Results show a conservative end\uffe2\uff80\uff90of\uffe2\uff80\uff90century mitigation capacity of 110 (57\uffe2\uff80\uff93178) Gt CO2e for the U.S., ~50% higher than existing estimates that prioritize nature\uffe2\uff80\uff90based or bioenergy solutions separately. Further research is needed to shrink uncertainties, but there is sufficient confidence in the general magnitude and direction of a combined approach to plan for deployment now.