Scientists have the difficult task of clearly conveying the ecological consequences of forest and wetland loss to the public. To address this challenge, we scaled the atmospheric carbon emissions arising from mangrove deforestation down to the level of an individual consumer. This type of quantification represents the \uffe2\uff80\uff9cland\uffe2\uff80\uff90use carbon footprint\uffe2\uff80\uff9d, or the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) generated when natural ecosystems are converted to produce commodities. On the basis of measurements of ecosystem carbon stocks from 30 relatively undisturbed mangrove forests and 21 adjacent shrimp ponds or cattle pastures, we determined that mangrove conversion results in GHG emissions ranging between 1067 and 3003 megagrams of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per hectare. There is a land\uffe2\uff80\uff90use carbon footprint of 1440 kg CO2e for every kilogram of beef and 1603 kg CO2e for every kilogram of shrimp produced on lands formerly occupied by mangroves. A typical steak and shrimp cocktail dinner would burden the atmosphere with 816 kg CO2e. This is approximately the same quantity of GHGs produced by driving a fuel\uffe2\uff80\uff90efficient automobile from Los Angeles to New York City. Failure to include deforestation in life\uffe2\uff80\uff90cycle assessments greatly underestimates the GHG emissions from food production.
", "keywords": ["13. Climate action", "mangroves", "carbon", "greenhouse gases", "emission", "carbon dioxide", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "6. Clean water", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1482"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Frontiers%20in%20Ecology%20and%20the%20Environment", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1002/fee.1482", "name": "item", "description": "10.1002/fee.1482", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1002/fee.1482"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2017-04-10T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1007/s10750-013-1617-3", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:15:26Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2013-08-06", "title": "Vegetation And Soil Characteristics As Indicators Of Restoration Trajectories In Restored Mangroves", "description": "We investigated the restoration trajectories in vegetation and soil parameters of monospecific Rhizophora mucronata stands planted 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, and 50 years ago (restored system). We tested the hypothesis that the changes in vegetation characteristics, with progressing mangrove age, are related to the changes in soil characteristics. The vegetation and soil parameters were compared across this restoration sequence using a reference system comprising mature, natural mangrove stands of unknown age. Rapid increases in leaf area index and aboveground biomass, and declines in tree density and size (in terms of tree diameter and height) occurred with increasing stand age. Soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and soil redox potential increased, and soil temperature decreased as stands aged. These patterns tended to stabilize at approximately the 11th year, indicating the probable age that restoration plots tend toward forest maturity. The time for the restored systems to reach forest maturity, attaining characteristics similar to the reference system, is estimated at 25 years, which is relatively slow compared to forest regeneration trajectories estimated for natural mangroves. Our study describes the trajectory patterns for planted mangroves, which are important for the assessment of both the progress and success of mangrove rehabilitation programs.", "keywords": ["Rhizophora", "0106 biological sciences", "550", "Philippines", "Restoration", "Mangroves", "1104 Complementary and Alternative Medicine", "910", "15. Life on land", "Soil carbon", "01 natural sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-013-1617-3"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Hydrobiologia", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1007/s10750-013-1617-3", "name": "item", "description": "10.1007/s10750-013-1617-3", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1007/s10750-013-1617-3"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2013-08-07T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1007/s11273-015-9453-z", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:15:39Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2015-08-08", "title": "Carbon Stocks Of Mangroves And Losses Arising From Their Conversion To Cattle Pastures In The Pantanos De Centla, Mexico", "description": "The conservation of mangroves and other coastal \u201cblue carbon\u201d ecosystems is receiving heightened attention because of recognition of their high ecosystem carbon stocks as well as vast areas undergoing land conversion. However, few studies have paired intact mangroves with degraded sites to determine carbon losses due to land conversion. To address this gap we quantified total ecosystem carbon stocks in mangroves and cattle pastures formed from mangroves in the large wetland complex of the Pantanos de Centla in SE Mexico. The mean total ecosystem carbon stocks of fringe and estuarine tall mangroves was 1358\u00a0Mg\u00a0C/ha. In contrast the mean carbon stocks of cattle pastures was 458\u00a0Mg\u00a0C/ha. Based upon a biomass equivalence of losses from the top 1\u00a0m of mangrove soils, the losses in carbon stocks from mangrove conversion are conservatively estimated at 1464\u00a0Mg\u00a0CO2e/ha. These losses were 7-fold that of emissions from tropical dry forest to pasture conversion and 3-fold greater than emissions from Amazon forest to pasture conversion. However, we found that limiting ecosystem carbon stocks differences to the surface 1\u00a0m or even 2\u00a0m soil depth will miss losses that occurred from deeper horizons. Mangrove conversion to other land uses comes at a great cost in terms of greenhouse gas emissions as well losses of other important ecosystem services.", "keywords": ["0106 biological sciences", "climate change", "cattle", "13. Climate action", "carbon", "mangroves", "emission", "land use", "15. Life on land", "carbon sequestration", "01 natural sciences", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-015-9453-z"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Wetlands%20Ecology%20and%20Management", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1007/s11273-015-9453-z", "name": "item", "description": "10.1007/s11273-015-9453-z", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1007/s11273-015-9453-z"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2015-08-09T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.009", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:16:30Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2017-05-12", "title": "Changes In Organic Carbon Accumulation Driven By Mangrove Expansion And Deforestation In A New Zealand Estuary", "description": "Abstract Mangroves are rapidly being lost to deforestation in many locations while expanding their areal extent in other subtropical and temperate regions. Currently, there is a paucity of information on how these changes may alter the carbon accumulation capacity of coastal areas. Here, sediment cores were collected from two areas and used to determine the influence of mangrove migration and deforestation on sediment carbon stocks and accumulation rates. The deforested area contained lower sedimentary organic carbon stocks (2767\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0580\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 ) compared to the preserved area (6949\u00a0\u00b1\u00a084\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 ). Sediment accumulation rates, derived from excess 210 Pb and 239+240 Pu depositional signatures, ranged from 0.19 to 0.35\u00a0cm\u00a0yr \u22121 . The total sedimentary organic carbon (TOC) accumulation rates for the period after mangrove deforestation (2005\u20132011) exhibited significant differences between preserved areas (Core C: 43.9\u00a0\u00b1\u00a06.9\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 yr \u22121 ; Core D: 83.1\u00a0\u00b1\u00a05.9\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 yr \u22121 ) and the deforested area (Core B: 25.8\u00a0\u00b1\u00a06.0\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 yr \u22121 ), suggesting a decline after deforestation. For the preserved area, the TOC accumulation under mangrove dominance (65.5\u00a0\u00b1\u00a016.3\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 yr \u22121 , after 1944) was higher than under saltmarsh dominance (23.5\u00a0\u00b1\u00a015.9\u00a0g\u00a0m \u22122 yr \u22121 , before 1944), as revealed by carbon isotopic signatures (\u03b4 13 C). The increase in the TOC accumulation due to mangrove expansion in this New Zealand estuary was conservatively estimated as three-fold higher, and two-fold higher in stocks in comparison to the period when this ecosystem was dominated by non-mangrove vegetation.", "keywords": ["580", "0106 biological sciences", "Organic carbon burial", "550", "Anthropogenic deforestation", "Geology", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "13. Climate action", "210Pb 239\u00fe240Pu", "Mangroves", "Geochronologies", "14. Life underwater", "Mangrove expansion", "Organic carbon", "Environmental Sciences", "210Pb", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.009"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Estuarine%2C%20Coastal%20and%20Shelf%20Science", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.009", "name": "item", "description": "10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.009", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.009"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2017-06-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1016/j.foreco.2018.08.047", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"license": "Open Access", "updated": "2026-06-23T16:16:52Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2018-09-12", "title": "Carbon Dynamics And Land Use Carbon Footprints In Mangrove-Converted Aquaculture: The Case Of The Mahakam Delta, Indonesia", "description": "Abstract Mangroves provide a number of important ecosystem services to humanity but their persistence is threatened from deforestation, conversion, and climate change. The Mahakam Delta was once among the largest mangrove forests in Southeast Asia comprising 2% of Indonesia\u2019s total mangroves. Currently, about 62% of this extensive mangrove in the Mahakam Delta has been lost mainly due to conversion into aquaculture. To understand the impacts of mangrove conversion on carbon losses and therefore their values in climate change mitigation, we sampled 10 intact mangroves and 10 abandoned shrimp ponds to quantify: (1) the total ecosystem carbon stocks; (2) potential CO2 emissions arising from mangrove conversion to shrimp ponds; and (3) the land use carbon footprints of shrimp production. The mean ecosystem carbon stocks in shrimp ponds (499\u202f\u00b1\u202f56\u202fMg\u202fC\u202fha\u22121) was less than half of the relatively intact mangroves (1023\u202f\u00b1\u202f87\u202fMg\u202fC\u202fha\u22121). This equates to a potential annual emission factor over 16\u202fyears following mangrove conversion of 120\u202fMg\u202fCO2e\u202fha\u22121\u202fyr\u22121, which is similar with the total carbon loss from land conversion in freshwater tropical peat swamp forests. Inclusion of C losses from land use/cover change in a life cycle analysis (i.e., the land use carbon footprint) resulted in an estimated 2250\u202fkg CO2-e emitted for every kg of shrimp produced in mangrove-converted ponds. Conversion of mangroves to shrimp ponds in the Mahakam Delta resulted in a carbon loss equivalent to 226 years of soil carbon accumulation in natural mangroves. Conservation of mangroves are of great value for inclusion in climate change mitigation strategies because of their large carbon stocks, the large carbon emissions generated from land use, and the potentially long period of time required to recover carbon stocks following abandonment.", "keywords": ["climate change", "aquaculture", "13. Climate action", "carbon", "mangroves", "land use", "14. Life underwater", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.08.047"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Forest%20Ecology%20and%20Management", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1016/j.foreco.2018.08.047", "name": "item", "description": "10.1016/j.foreco.2018.08.047", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.08.047"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2019-01-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.049", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:17:13Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2016-06-11", "title": "Rehabilitating Mangrove Ecosystem Services: A Case Study On The Relative Benefits Of Abandoned Pond Reversion From Panay Island, Philippines", "description": "Mangroves provide vital climate change mitigation and adaptation (CCMA) ecosystem services (ES), yet have suffered extensive tropics-wide declines. To mitigate losses, rehabilitation is high on the conservation agenda. However, the relative functionality and ES delivery of rehabilitated mangroves in different intertidal locations is rarely assessed. In a case study from Panay Island, Philippines, using field- and satellite-derived methods, we assess carbon stocks and coastal protection potential of rehabilitated low-intertidal seafront and mid- to upper-intertidal abandoned (leased) fishpond areas, against reference natural mangroves. Due to large sizes and appropriate site conditions, targeted abandoned fishpond reversion to former mangrove was found to be favourable for enhancing CCMA in the coastal zone. In a municipality-specific case study, 96.7% of abandoned fishponds with high potential for effective greenbelt rehabilitation had favourable tenure status for reversion. These findings have implications for coastal zone management in Asia in the face of climate change.", "keywords": ["0106 biological sciences", "Carbon Sequestration", "Conservation of Natural Resources", "coastal protection", "mangroves", "Philippines", "Aquatic Science", "15. Life on land", "Oceanography", "Pollution", "01 natural sciences", "Carbon", "rehabilitation", "carbon stocks", "13. Climate action", "Wetlands", "11. Sustainability", "14. Life underwater", "ecosystem services", "Ponds", "abandoned aquaculture ponds", "Ecosystem", "Environmental Restoration and Remediation", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.049"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Marine%20Pollution%20Bulletin", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.049", "name": "item", "description": "10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.049", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.049"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2016-08-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.003", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:17:37Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2014-11-17", "title": "Short- And Long-Term Effects Of Nutrient Enrichment On Microbial Exoenzyme Activity In Mangrove Peat", "description": "Abstract Mangroves receive increasing quantities of nutrients as a result of coastal development, which could lead to significant changes in carbon sequestration and soil subsidence. We hypothesised that mangrove-produced tannins induce a nitrogen (N) limitation on microbial decomposition even when plant growth is limited by phosphorus (P). As a result, increased N influx would lead to a net loss of sequestered carbon negating the ability to compensate for sea level rise in P-limited mangroves. To examine this, we quantified the short- and long-term effects of N and P enrichment on microbial biomass and decomposition-related enzyme activities in a Rhizophora mangle-dominated mangrove, which had been subjected to fertilisation treatments for a period of fifteen years. We compared microbial biomass, elemental stoichiometry and potential enzyme activity in dwarf and fringe-type R. mangle-dominated sites, where primary production is limited by P or N depending on the proximity to open water. Even in P-limited mangroves, microbial activity was N-limited as indicated by stoichiometry and an increase in enzymic activity upon N amendment. Nevertheless, microbial biomass increased upon field additions of P, indicating that the carbon supply played even a larger role. Furthermore, we found that P amendment suppressed phenol oxidase activity, while N amendment did not. The possible differential nutrient limitations of microbial decomposers versus primary producers implies that the direction of the effect of eutrophication on carbon sequestration is nutrient-specific. In addition, this study shows that phenol oxidase activities in this system decrease through P, possibly strengthening the enzymic latch effect of mangrove tannins. Furthermore, it is argued that the often used division between N-harvesting, P-harvesting, and carbon-harvesting exoenzymes needs to be reconsidered.", "keywords": ["Rhizophora", "Decomposition", "Peat", "Differential nutrient limitation", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "Microbial activity", "Microbial elemental stoichiometry", "13. Climate action", "international", "Taverne", "11. Sustainability", "Mangroves", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "SDG 14 - Life Below Water", "SOC", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.003"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Soil%20Biology%20and%20Biochemistry", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.003", "name": "item", "description": "10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.003", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.003"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2015-02-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1111/gcb.14774", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:19:26Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2019-08-28", "title": "Effect of land-use and land-cover change on mangrove blue carbon: A systematic review", "description": "AbstractMangroves shift from carbon sinks to sources when affected by anthropogenic land\uffe2\uff80\uff90use and land\uffe2\uff80\uff90cover change (LULCC). Yet, the magnitude and temporal scale of these impacts are largely unknown. We undertook a systematic review to examine the influence of LULCC on mangrove carbon stocks and soil greenhouse gas (GHG) effluxes. A search of 478 data points from the peer\uffe2\uff80\uff90reviewed literature revealed a substantial reduction of biomass (82%\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa035%) and soil (54%\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa013%) carbon stocks due to LULCC. The relative loss depended on LULCC type, time since LULCC and geographical and climatic conditions of sites. We also observed that the loss of soil carbon stocks was linked to the decreased soil carbon content and increased soil bulk density over the first 100\uffc2\uffa0cm depth. We found no significant effect of LULCC on soil GHG effluxes. Regeneration efforts (i.e. restoration, rehabilitation and afforestation) led to biomass recovery after ~40\uffc2\uffa0years. However, we found no clear patterns of mangrove soil carbon stock re\uffe2\uff80\uff90establishment following biomass recovery. Our findings suggest that regeneration may help restore carbon stocks back to pre\uffe2\uff80\uff90disturbed levels over decadal to century time scales only, with a faster rate for biomass recovery than for soil carbon stocks. Therefore, improved mangrove ecosystem management by preventing further LULCC and promoting rehabilitation is fundamental for effective climate change mitigation policy.
", "keywords": ["0106 biological sciences", "Carbon Sequestration", "mangroves", "ecological restoration", "systematic reviews", "land use", "15. Life on land", "coastal areas", "01 natural sciences", "Carbon", "mitigation", "Soil", "climate change", "carbon sinks", "13. Climate action", "Wetlands", "emission", "Ecosystem", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14774"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Global%20Change%20Biology", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1111/gcb.14774", "name": "item", "description": "10.1111/gcb.14774", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1111/gcb.14774"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2019-08-27T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1890/13-0640.1", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:20:44Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2013-09-09", "title": "Carbon Stocks Of Intact Mangroves And Carbon Emissions Arising From Their Conversion In The Dominican Republic", "description": "Mangroves are recognized to possess a variety of ecosystem services including high rates of carbon sequestration and storage. Deforestation and conversion of these ecosystems continue to be high and have been predicted to result in significant carbon emissions to the atmosphere. Yet few studies have quantified the carbon stocks or losses associated with conversion of these ecosystems. In this study we quantified the ecosystem carbon stocks of three common mangrove types of the Caribbean as well as those of abandoned shrimp ponds in areas formerly occupied by mangrove\uffe2\uff80\uff94a common land\uffe2\uff80\uff90use conversion of mangroves throughout the world. In the mangroves of the Montecristi Province in Northwest Dominican Republic we found C stocks ranged from 706 to 1131 Mg/ha. The medium\uffe2\uff80\uff90statured mangroves (3\uffe2\uff80\uff9310 m in height) had the highest C stocks while the tall (>10 m) mangroves had the lowest ecosystem carbon storage. Carbon stocks of the low mangrove (shrub) type (<3 m) were relatively high due to the presence of carbon\uffe2\uff80\uff90rich soils as deep as 2 m. Carbon stocks of abandoned shrimp ponds were 95 Mg/ha or \uffe2\uff88\uffbc11% that of the mangroves. Using a stock\uffe2\uff80\uff90change approach, the potential emissions from the conversion of mangroves to shrimp ponds ranged from 2244 to 3799 Mg CO2e/ha (CO2 equivalents). This is among the largest measured C emissions from land use in the tropics. The 6260 ha of mangroves and converted mangroves in the Montecristi Province are estimated to contain 3\uffe2\uff80\uff8a841\uffe2\uff80\uff8a490 Mg of C. Mangroves represented 76% of this area but currently store 97% of the carbon in this coastal wetland (3\uffe2\uff80\uff8a696\uffe2\uff80\uff8a722 Mg C). Converted lands store only 4% of the total ecosystem C (144\uffe2\uff80\uff8a778 Mg C) while they comprised 24% of the area. By these metrics the replacement of mangroves with shrimp and salt ponds has resulted in estimated emissions from this region totaling 3.8 million Mg CO2e or \uffe2\uff88\uffbc21% of the total C prior to conversion. Given the high C stocks of mangroves, the high emissions from their conversion, and the other important functions and services they provide, their inclusion in climate\uffe2\uff80\uff90change mitigation strategies is warranted.
", "keywords": ["0106 biological sciences", "Conservation of Natural Resources", "carbon", "mangroves", "Climate Change", "Dominican Republic", "land use", "Water", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "Carbon", "mitigation", "Soil", "climate change", "13. Climate action", "Wetlands", "emission", "Rhizophoraceae", "Avicennia", "Environmental Monitoring", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"], "contacts": [{"organization": "Kauffman, J.B., Heider, C., Norfolk, J., Payton, F.,", "roles": ["creator"]}]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0640.1"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Ecological%20Applications", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1890/13-0640.1", "name": "item", "description": "10.1890/13-0640.1", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1890/13-0640.1"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2014-04-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.1890/15-2143", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"license": "Open Access", "updated": "2026-06-23T16:20:44Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2016-06-08", "title": "Impacts Of Land Use On Indian Mangrove Forest Carbon Stocks: Implications For Conservation And Management", "description": "AbstractGlobally, mangrove forests represents only 0.7% of world's tropical forested area but are highly threatened due to susceptibility to climate change, sea level rise, and increasing pressures from human population growth in coastal regions. Our study was carried out in the Bhitarkanika Conservation Area (BCA), the second\uffe2\uff80\uff90largest mangrove area in eastern India. We assessed total ecosystem carbon (C) stocks at four land use types representing varying degree of disturbances. Ranked in order of increasing impacts, these sites included dense mangrove forests, scrub mangroves, restored/planted mangroves, and abandoned aquaculture ponds. These impacts include both natural and/or anthropogenic disturbances causing stress, degradation, and destruction of mangroves. Mean vegetation C stocks (including both above\uffe2\uff80\uff90 and belowground pools; mean\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa0standard error) in aquaculture, planted, scrub, and dense mangroves were 0, 7\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa04, 65\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa011 and 100\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa011 Mg C/ha, respectively. Average soil C pools for aquaculture, planted, scrub, and dense mangroves were 61\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa08, 92\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa020, 177\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa014, and 134\uffc2\uffa0\uffc2\uffb1\uffc2\uffa017 Mg C/ha, respectively. Mangrove soils constituted largest fraction of total ecosystem C stocks at all sampled sites (aquaculture [100%], planted [90%], scrub [72%], and dense mangrove [57%]). Within BCA, the four studied land use types covered an area of ~167\uffc2\uffa0km2 and the total ecosystem C stocks were 0.07\uffc2\uffa0Tg C for aquaculture (~12\uffc2\uffa0km2), 0.25\uffc2\uffa0Tg C for planted/ restored mangrove (~24\uffc2\uffa0km2), 2.29\uffc2\uffa0teragrams (Tg) Tg C for scrub (~93\uffc2\uffa0km2), and 0.89\uffc2\uffa0Tg C for dense mangroves (~38\uffc2\uffa0km2). Although BCA is protected under Indian wildlife protection and conservation laws, ~150 000 people inhabit this area and are directly or indirectly dependent on mangrove resources for sustenance. Estimates of C stocks of Bhitarkanika mangroves and recognition of their role as a C repository could provide an additional reason to support conservation and restoration of Bhitarkanika mangroves. Harvesting or destructive exploitation of mangroves by local communities for economic gains can potentially be minimized by enabling these communities to avail themselves of carbon offset/conservation payments under approved climate change mitigation strategies and actions.
", "keywords": ["0106 biological sciences", "Conservation of Natural Resources", "carbon", "mangroves", "Climate Change", "India", "Agriculture", "15. Life on land", "coastal areas", "01 natural sciences", "Carbon", "mitigation", "Soil", "climate change", "13. Climate action", "Wetlands", "Humans", "Human Activities", "14. Life underwater", "ecology", "ecosystems", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1890/15-2143"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Ecological%20Applications", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1890/15-2143", "name": "item", "description": "10.1890/15-2143", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1890/15-2143"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2016-07-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10.5281/zenodo.7727569", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-06-23T16:24:38Z", "type": "Dataset", "title": "Predicted soil organic carbon stock at 30 m in t/ha for 0-100 cm depth global / update of the map of mangrove forest soil carbon", "description": "Open Access{'references': ['Hamilton, S. E., & Casey, D. (2016). Creation of a high spatio u2010temporal resolution global database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (CGMFC u201021). Global Ecology and Biogeography, 25(6), 729-738.', 'Murray, N. J., Worthington, T. A., Bunting, P., Duce, S., Hagger, V., Lovelock, C. E., ... & Lyons, M. B. (2022). High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth's tidal wetlands. Science, 376(6594), 744-749.', 'Rovai, A. S., Twilley, R. R., Casta u00f1eda-Moya, E., Riul, P., Cifuentes-Jara, M., Manrow-Villalobos, M., ... & Pagliosa, P. R. (2018). Global controls on carbon storage in mangrove soils. Nature Climate Change, 8: 534 u2013538.', 'Sanderman, Jonathan, Tomislav Hengl, Greg Fiske, Kylen Solvik, Maria Fernanda Adame, Lisa Benson, Jacob J. Bukoski et al. (2018) 'A global map of mangrove forest soil carbon at 30 m spatial resolution. ' Environmental Research Letters, 13(5): 055002.']}", "keywords": ["machine learning", "13. Climate action", "mangroves", "14. Life underwater", "superlearner package", "15. Life on land", "soil carbon"], "contacts": [{"organization": "Hengl, Tomislav, Maxwell, Tania, Parente, Leandro,", "roles": ["creator"]}]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7727569"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.5281/zenodo.7727569", "name": "item", "description": "10.5281/zenodo.7727569", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.5281/zenodo.7727569"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2018-10-23T00:00:00Z"}}], "links": [{"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "This document as GeoJSON", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=mangroves&f=json", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "alternate", "type": "text/html", "title": "This document as HTML", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=mangroves&f=html", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection URL", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"type": "application/geo+json", "rel": "first", "title": "items (first)", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=mangroves&", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "last", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "items (last)", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=mangroves&offset=11", "hreflang": "en-US"}], "numberMatched": 11, "numberReturned": 11, "distributedFeatures": [], "timeStamp": "2026-06-24T04:23:54.196721Z"}