Soil invertebrate communities represent a significant fraction of global biodiversity and play crucial roles in ecosystems. A number of human activities threaten soil communities, in particular intensive agricultural practices such as pesticide use. However, there is currently no quantitative synthesis of the impacts of pesticides on soil fauna communities.
Here, using a meta\uffe2\uff80\uff90analysis of 54 studies and 294 observations, we quantify pesticide effects on the abundance, biomass, richness and diversity of natural soil fauna communities across a wide range of environmental contexts. We also identify scenarios with the most detrimental effects on soil fauna communities by analysing the effects of different pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, broad\uffe2\uff80\uff90spectrum substances and multiple substances), different application rates and temporal extents (short\uffe2\uff80\uff90 or long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term), as well as the response of different functional groups of soil animals (body size categories, presence of exoskeleton).
Pesticides overall decreased the abundance and diversity of soil fauna communities across studies (Grand mean effect size (Hedge's g)\uffe2\uff80\uff89=\uffe2\uff80\uff89\uffe2\uff88\uff920.30\uffe2\uff80\uff89+/\uffe2\uff88\uff92\uffe2\uff80\uff890.16) and had stronger effects on soil fauna diversity than abundance. The most detrimental scenarios involved multiple substances, broad\uffe2\uff80\uff90spectrum substances and insecticides, which significantly decreased soil fauna diversity even at recommended rates. We found no evidence that pesticide effects dampen over time, as short\uffe2\uff80\uff90term and long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term studies exhibited similar mean effect sizes.
Policy implications: Our study highlights that pesticide use has significant detrimental non\uffe2\uff80\uff90target effects on soil biodiversity, eroding a substantial part of global biodiversity and threatening ecosystem health. This provides crucial evidence supporting recent policies, such as the European Green Deal, that aim to reduce pesticide use in agriculture to conserve biodiversity. The detrimental effects of multiple substances revealed here are particularly concerning because realistic pesticide use often combines several substances targeting different pests and diseases over the crop season. We suggest that future guidelines for pesticide registration, restrictions and banning should rely on data able to fully capture the long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term consequences of multiple substances for multiple non\uffe2\uff80\uff90target species in realistic conditions.
How multiple abiotic stress factors combined with herbivory affect interactions within plant communities is poorly understood. We ask how large herbivore grazing affects the direction of plant\uffe2\uff80\uff93plant interactions along an environmental gradient in a salt marsh.LocationGrazed (cattle) and ungrazed salt marshes of the Dutch Wadden Sea island Schiermonnikoog. Here, patches of tall plant communities, dominated by the tough, unpalatable species Juncus maritimus Lam., are found alternating with low\uffe2\uff80\uff90statured, intensively grazed plant communities.
MethodsAlong the inundation gradient, we measured plant species composition and plant species traits (specific leaf area, specific root length, maximum height and abundance) inside and outside J.\uffc2\uffa0maritimus patches in grazed and ungrazed areas. In addition, we measured soil structure parameters (bulk density, soil porosity, clay depth), multiple limiting conditions for plant growth (soil salinity, soil redox, plant canopy light interception), plant biomass, presence of herbivores and abundance of soil macro\uffe2\uff80\uff90detritivores.
ResultsUnder grazing, the palatable grasses Elytrigia atherica (Link) Kergu\uffc3\uffa9len and Festuca rubra L. were positively associated with J.\uffc2\uffa0maritimus, while shade\uffe2\uff80\uff90intolerant Puccinellia maritima (Huds.) Parl. and Juncus gerardii\uffc2\uffa0 Loisel. were negatively associated with this species. Furthermore, macro\uffe2\uff80\uff90detritivore presence was higher inside J.\uffc2\uffa0maritimus patches. In ungrazed areas E.\uffc2\uffa0atherica and F.\uffc2\uffa0rubra were negatively associated with J.\uffc2\uffa0maritimus, while P.\uffc2\uffa0maritima and J.\uffc2\uffa0gerardii were rare. In both grazed and ungrazed conditions the directions of species associations were independent of the inundation gradient. Analysis of species traits and abiotic conditions suggested that associational resistance (a facilitation type) was important in grazed areas. In ungrazed areas, light competition was the likely dominant process.
ConclusionsThe direction of species associations within these salt marsh communities was strongly affected by grazing, not by the underlying stress gradient. Measurement of species traits indicated that plant\uffe2\uff80\uff93plant interactions shifted from competitive to facilitative under grazing. Besides grazing, cross\uffe2\uff80\uff90trophic facilitation of soil disturbing macro\uffe2\uff80\uff90detritivores may play an important \uffe2\uff80\uff93 thus far ignored \uffe2\uff80\uff93 role in structuring plant communities.
", "keywords": ["Plant traits", "2. Zero hunger", "0106 biological sciences", "Salt marsh", "Macro-detritivores", "SUCCESSION", "Stress gradient hypothesis", "PREDICTIONS", "COMPETITION", "HALOPHYTES", "15. Life on land", "ALKALI GRASSLANDS", "FACILITATION", "01 natural sciences", "POSITIVE SPECIES INTERACTIONS", "Grazing", "Plant-plant interactions", "FUNCTIONAL TRAITS", "Trampling", "Orchestia gammarellus Pallas. 1766", "BIOTURBATION", "Facilitation", "Juncus maritimus Lam.", "VEGETATION", "Multiple stressors"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12317"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Journal%20of%20Vegetation%20Science", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1111/jvs.12317", "name": "item", "description": "10.1111/jvs.12317", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1111/jvs.12317"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2015-06-24T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10773/25425", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-07-27T16:26:06Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2019-02-01", "title": "Soil moisture influences the avoidance behavior of invertebrate species in anthropogenic metal(loid)-contaminated soils", "description": "Water availability is paramount in the response of soil invertebrates towards stress situations. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of forecasted soil moisture scenarios on the avoidance behavior of two invertebrate species (the arthropod Folsomia candida and the soft-bodied oligochaete Enchytraeus crypticus) in soils degraded by different types of anthropogenic metal(loid) contamination (mining soil and agricultural soil affected by industrial chemical wastes). Different soil moisture contents (expressed as % of the soil water holding capacity, WHC) were evaluated: 50% (standard soil moisture conditions for soil invertebrates' tests); 75% (to simulate increasing soil water availability after intense rainfalls and/or floods); 40%, 30%, 25% and 20% (to simulate decreasing soil water availability during droughts). Invertebrates' avoidance behavior and changes in soil porewater major ions and metal(loid)s were assessed after 48\u202fh exposure. Soil incubations induced a general solubilization/mobilization of porewater major ions, while higher soil acidity favored the solubilization/mobilization of porewater metal(loid)s, especially at 75% WHC. Folsomia candida preferred soils moistened at 50% WHC, regardless the soils were contaminated or not and the changing soil porewater characteristics. Enchytraeus crypticus avoided metal(loid) contamination, but this depended on the soil moisture conditions and the corresponding changes in porewater characteristics: enchytraeids lost their capacity to avoid contaminated soils under water stress situations (75% and 20-25% WHC), but also when contaminated soils had greater water availability than control soils. Therefore, forecasted soil moisture scenarios induced by global warming changed soil porewater composition and invertebrates capacity to avoid metal(loid)-contaminated soils.", "keywords": ["2. Zero hunger", "Global warming", "Water", "Metal(loid) availability", "Enchytraeus crypticus", "Agriculture", "15. Life on land", "Global Warming", "01 natural sciences", "Mining", "6. Clean water", "Folsomia candida", "Soil", "Metals", "13. Climate action", "Avoidance Learning", "Animals", "Soil Pollutants", "Oligochaeta", "Multiple stressors", "Environmental Pollution", "Arthropods", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10773/25425"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Environmental%20Pollution", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10773/25425", "name": "item", "description": "10773/25425", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10773/25425"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2019-05-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "10773/28738", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-07-27T16:26:06Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2020-06-20", "title": "Effects of climate conditions on the avoidance behavior of Folsomia candida and Enchytraeus crypticus towards metal(loid)-contaminated soils", "description": "Global climate changes are predicted for the 21st century. Alterations in soil contaminants' availability and soil invertebrates' behavior are expected, which may interfere with the avoidance capacity that invertebrates may have towards contaminated soils and, therefore, compromise their role in soil functioning. This study aimed to assess the individual effects of air temperature, ultraviolet (UV) radiation and atmospheric CO2 concentration on the avoidance behavior of the arthropod Folsomia candida and the soft-bodied oligochaete Enchytraeus crypticus towards metal(loid)-contaminated soils. Avoidance behavior was evaluated under distinct climate treatments (simulating increases in air temperature, UV radiation exposure or atmospheric CO2 concentration) and compared to the response obtained at the standard conditions recommended by ISO guidelines. Both soil invertebrate species behave differently under standard conditions, with F. candida not avoiding the contaminated soils while E. crypticus did. Increases in air temperature and exposure to UV radiation did not change F. candida behavior towards contaminated soils. However, high atmospheric CO2 concentration modified this pattern and induced avoidance towards contaminated soils. As for E. crypticus, contaminated soils were also avoided under the different climate treatments simulated. Thus, our study shows that, depending on the species and the climate factor, changes in climate conditions may alter soil invertebrates' behavioral pattern towards meta(loid)-contaminated soils.", "keywords": ["Soil invertebrates", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "UV radiation", "Air 35 temperature", "Soil", "Metals", "13. Climate action", "Atmospheric CO2", "Avoidance Learning", "Anthropogenic activities", "Animals", "Soil Pollutants", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "Oligochaeta", "Multiple stressors", "Arthropods", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10773/28738"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Science%20of%20The%20Total%20Environment", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10773/28738", "name": "item", "description": "10773/28738", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10773/28738"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2020-11-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "20.500.11755/4c13fe60-dc80-4651-89f1-3ed216556ac0", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-07-27T16:26:41Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2023-06-08", "title": "Pesticide effects on soil fauna communities\u2014A meta\u2010analysis", "description": "Abstract
Soil invertebrate communities represent a significant fraction of global biodiversity and play crucial roles in ecosystems. A number of human activities threaten soil communities, in particular intensive agricultural practices such as pesticide use. However, there is currently no quantitative synthesis of the impacts of pesticides on soil fauna communities.
Here, using a meta\uffe2\uff80\uff90analysis of 54 studies and 294 observations, we quantify pesticide effects on the abundance, biomass, richness and diversity of natural soil fauna communities across a wide range of environmental contexts. We also identify scenarios with the most detrimental effects on soil fauna communities by analysing the effects of different pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, broad\uffe2\uff80\uff90spectrum substances and multiple substances), different application rates and temporal extents (short\uffe2\uff80\uff90 or long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term), as well as the response of different functional groups of soil animals (body size categories, presence of exoskeleton).
Pesticides overall decreased the abundance and diversity of soil fauna communities across studies (Grand mean effect size (Hedge's g)\uffe2\uff80\uff89=\uffe2\uff80\uff89\uffe2\uff88\uff920.30\uffe2\uff80\uff89+/\uffe2\uff88\uff92\uffe2\uff80\uff890.16) and had stronger effects on soil fauna diversity than abundance. The most detrimental scenarios involved multiple substances, broad\uffe2\uff80\uff90spectrum substances and insecticides, which significantly decreased soil fauna diversity even at recommended rates. We found no evidence that pesticide effects dampen over time, as short\uffe2\uff80\uff90term and long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term studies exhibited similar mean effect sizes.
Policy implications: Our study highlights that pesticide use has significant detrimental non\uffe2\uff80\uff90target effects on soil biodiversity, eroding a substantial part of global biodiversity and threatening ecosystem health. This provides crucial evidence supporting recent policies, such as the European Green Deal, that aim to reduce pesticide use in agriculture to conserve biodiversity. The detrimental effects of multiple substances revealed here are particularly concerning because realistic pesticide use often combines several substances targeting different pests and diseases over the crop season. We suggest that future guidelines for pesticide registration, restrictions and banning should rely on data able to fully capture the long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term consequences of multiple substances for multiple non\uffe2\uff80\uff90target species in realistic conditions.