We examined patterns of nutrient heterogeneity in the mineral soil (0\uffe2\uff80\uff9315 cm depth) of 13 southern Appalachian forest stands in western North Carolina >60 yr after abandonment from pasture or timber harvest to investigate the long\uffe2\uff80\uff90term effects of land use on the spatial distribution and supply of soil resources. We measured soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), acid\uffe2\uff80\uff90extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) concentrations and pools, and potential net N mineralization and nitrification rates to evaluate differences in mean values, variance at multiple scales, and fine\uffe2\uff80\uff90scale spatial structure.
While comparisons of averaged values rarely indicated that historical land use had an enduring effect on mineral soil or N cycling, differences in variance and spatial structure suggested that former activities continue to influence nutrient distributions by altering their spatial heterogeneity. Patterns differed by element, but generally variance of soil C, N, and Ca decreased and variance of soil P, K, and Mg increased with intensive past land use. Changes in variance were most conspicuous and consistent locally (<28 m), but C, Ca, P, and Mg also exhibited appreciable differences in variance at coarser scales (>150 m). High variability in soil compaction resulted in some changes in scale\uffe2\uff80\uff90dependent patterns of nutrient pool variance compared with nutrient concentration variance. It also affected the variance of N cycling rates, such that mass\uffe2\uff80\uff90based rates varied less and area\uffe2\uff80\uff90based rates varied more in intensively used areas than in reference stands. Geostatistical analysis suggested that past land use homogenized the spatial structure of soil C, K, and P in former pastures. In contrast, logged stands had highly variable spatial patterning for Ca.
These results suggest that land use has persistent, multi\uffe2\uff80\uff90decadal effects on the spatial heterogeneity of soil resources, which may not be detectable when values are averaged across sites. By interacting with patterns of variability in the plant and heterotrophic biota, differences in nutrient distribution and supply could alter the composition and diversity of forest ecosystems. Scale\uffe2\uff80\uff90dependent changes in nutrient heterogeneity could also complicate efforts to determine biogeochemical budgets and cycling rates.
", "keywords": ["Statistics and Probability", "2. Zero hunger", "570", "land-use history", "550", "carbon", "forest ecosystem recovery", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "cations", "logging", "nitrogen", "13. Climate action", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "grazing", "phosphorus", "semivariograms", "Biology"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0475"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Ecological%20Monographs", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "10.1890/03-0475", "name": "item", "description": "10.1890/03-0475", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/10.1890/03-0475"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2005-02-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "2745857202", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-08-25T16:22:49Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2017-08-23", "title": "Spatial variability of soil properties and cereal yield in a cultivated field on sandy soil", "description": "Abstract Sandy soils are used in agriculture in different regions of the world. In Poland soils derived from sands occupy about 50% of agricultural area. Productivity of the soils depend on the soil properties that vary in the scale of field. This study aimed at determining and mapping the within-field variation of soil physical and chemical properties and grain yield of oats, rye, oats and triticale in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2015, respectively. The experiment was set up in a field (200\u00a0\u00d7\u00a050\u00a0m) on sandy soil in Trzebieszow (region Podlasie, Poland). The soil measurements included sand, silt, clay, and organic carbon (SOC) contents, cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH in the topsoil (0\u201310\u00a0cm) and subsoil (30\u201340\u00a0cm) layers in 2001, and water content and bulk density in the topsoil layer in spring and summer 2002\u20132003. The yields of oats were assessed in 2001 and 2003 and those of rye and triticale in 2002 and 2015, respectively. The soil properties and cereal yields were determined at 33\u201355 points in a grid evenly covering the whole field area. The results were analyzed using classic statistics and geostatistics by constructing semivariograms and 2D mapping by Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW). The cereal grain yields were significantly positively correlated with the topsoil water content (SWC) (r\u00a0=\u00a00.295\u20130.711), clay content (r\u00a0=\u00a00.081\u20130.174), and SOC in the subsoil (r\u00a0=\u00a00.208\u20130.271) and CEC in both layers (r\u00a0=\u00a00.123\u20130.298) and negatively correlated with bulk density (BD) (r\u00a0=\u00a0\u20130.065 to \u22120.279). The spatial dependence determined by the \u201cnugget-to-sill\u201d ratio was moderate or weak for the silt and clay content, CEC, and pH (29\u201379%) and strong for SOC, BD, SWC, and crop yield (0.2\u201313.2%). The effective range of the spatial dependence for all studied quantities varied from 9.9 to 120\u00a0m. The cereal yields were positively and significantly correlated between all study years (r\u00a0=\u00a00.141\u20130.734), which indicates inter-annual similarity in their spatial distribution. The 2D maps based on the IDW allowed assessing how gradual or sharp the changes in the studied quantities from one place to another are. Similar spatial patterns of the SWC, SOC and CEC, and crop yields were observed. This is of importance in precise and sustainable field management aimed at increasing and aligning spatial crop productivity of the studied low-productivity sandy soils that will have to be used in crop production due to the current shortage of land resources and food supplies on a global scale.", "keywords": ["2. Zero hunger", "2D maps", "soil properties", "sandy soil", "spatial variation", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "cereal yield", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "semivariograms", "15. Life on land"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/2745857202"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Soil%20and%20Tillage%20Research", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "2745857202", "name": "item", "description": "2745857202", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/2745857202"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2017-12-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "2795736439", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-08-25T16:22:50Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2018-04-04", "title": "Spatial relationships among cereal yields and selected soil physical and chemical properties", "description": "Sandy soils occupy large area in Poland (about 50%) and in the world. This study aimed at determining spatial relationships of cereal yields and the selected soil physical and chemical properties in three study years (2001-2003) on low productive sandy Podzol soil (Podlasie, Poland). The yields and soil properties in plough and subsoil layers were determined at 72-150 points. The test crops were: wheat, wheat and barley mixture and oats. To explore the spatial relationship between cereal yields and each soil property spatial statistics was used. The best fitting models were adjusted to empirical semivariance and cross-semivariance, which were used to draw maps using kriging. Majority of the soil properties and crop yields exhibited low and medium variability (coefficient of variation 5-70%). The effective ranges of the spatial dependence (the distance at which data are autocorrelated) for yields and all soil properties were 24.3-58.5m and 10.5-373m, respectively. Nugget to sill ratios showed that crop yields and soil properties were strongly spatially dependent except bulk density. Majority of the pairs in cross-semivariograms exhibited strong spatial interdependence. The ranges of the spatial dependence varied in plough layer between 54.6m for yield\u00d7pH up to 2433m for yield\u00d7silt content. Corresponding ranges in subsoil were 24.8m for crop yield\u00d7clay content in 2003 and 1404m for yield\u00d7bulk density. Kriging maps allowed separating sub-field area with the lowest yield and soil cation exchange capacity, organic carbon content and pH. This area had lighter color on the aerial photograph due to high content of the sand and low content of soil organic carbon. The results will help farmers at identifying sub-field areas for applying localized management practices to improve these soil properties and further spatial studies in larger scale.", "keywords": ["Crops", " Agricultural", "2. Zero hunger", "soil variability", "crop yields", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "low productive area", "Soil", "cross-semivariograms", "kriging maps", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "Poland", "Edible Grain", "Environmental Monitoring"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/2795736439"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Science%20of%20The%20Total%20Environment", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "2795736439", "name": "item", "description": "2795736439", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/2795736439"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2018-08-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "2966823696", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-08-25T16:22:55Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2019-08-07", "title": "The effect of exogenous organic matter on the thermal properties of tilled soils in Poland and the Czech Republic", "description": "Organic matter improves soil fertility and water and thermal properties, but its content often decreases. This decrease may be mitigated by the addition of exogenous organic matter (EOM). The aim of this study was to assess the effect of EOMs, including compost from manure, slurry, and straw (Ag); industrial organic compost from sewage sludge (Ra); animal meal from animal by-products (Mb); and digestate from a biogas fry factory (Dg) on soil thermal conductivity, heat capacity, thermal diffusivity, water content, and bulk density in the top (0\u201315-cm) layer of two soils in Poland and the Czech Republic. Irrespective of EOM type, the total yearly nitrogen application rate being 200\u00a0kg N\u00a0ha\u22121 (100%) was from a given EOM at the rates 0, 50, 75, and 100% and the remaining parts from the mineral fertilizer. The study was conducted in 2013\u20132014 in Poland (Braszowice) and the Czech Republic (Puste Jakartice) on loam silt and clay silt loam, respectively, as part of a cross-border cooperation project. The soil properties were examined using classical descriptive statistics, semivariograms, and kriging-interpolated maps. Analysis of linear regressions (trends) showed that the EOM application rate influenced (positively or negatively) the soil properties in most measurement occasions. The variability of all soil properties was low and medium (coefficient of variation 7.3\u201334%). Geostatistical analysis indicated that the spatial dependence (C0/(C0\u2009+\u2009Cs)) of the soil properties on the EOM-amended plots was very strong or moderate. The maps revealed that the heterogeneity and degree of patch fragmentation were greater for thermal conductivity and heat capacity than for thermal diffusivity, water content, and bulk density. In general, all the soil properties were spatially more variable in the Braszowice than Puste Jakartice soil and in spring than autumn in both sites. The spatial analysis and maps enhance the comprehensive understanding of changes in soil thermal properties in response to EOM application. Suitability of the results from the field experiments in models predicting some thermal properties based on soil bulk density and water content in relation to EOM addition was indicated. Expressing the amount of EOMs added using the organic carbon content basis (% kg OC/kg of soil) instead of the nitrogen content basis allowed identifying areas on the kriging-interpolated maps where the distribution of soil thermal properties resembled that of soil organic carbon content, water content, and bulk density. Thus, the effect of EOMs on soil thermal properties is considered along with changes in soil water content and bulk density. The results will be helpful in forecasting effects of exogenous organic matter on the soil thermal properties affecting surface-energy partitioning, temperature distribution in soil, and plant growth.", "keywords": ["2. Zero hunger", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "01 natural sciences", "6. Clean water", "recycled organic matter", "soil thermal properties", "13. Climate action", "kriging maps", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "Poland", "semivariograms", "Czech Republic", "0105 earth and related environmental sciences"], "contacts": [{"organization": "Bogus\u0142aw Usowicz, Jerzy Lipiec,", "roles": ["creator"]}]}, "links": [{"href": "http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11368-019-02388-2.pdf"}, {"href": "https://doi.org/2966823696"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Journal%20of%20Soils%20and%20Sediments", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "2966823696", "name": "item", "description": "2966823696", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/2966823696"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2019-08-07T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "29758908", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"updated": "2026-08-25T16:22:55Z", "type": "Journal Article", "created": "2018-04-04", "title": "Spatial relationships among cereal yields and selected soil physical and chemical properties", "description": "Sandy soils occupy large area in Poland (about 50%) and in the world. This study aimed at determining spatial relationships of cereal yields and the selected soil physical and chemical properties in three study years (2001-2003) on low productive sandy Podzol soil (Podlasie, Poland). The yields and soil properties in plough and subsoil layers were determined at 72-150 points. The test crops were: wheat, wheat and barley mixture and oats. To explore the spatial relationship between cereal yields and each soil property spatial statistics was used. The best fitting models were adjusted to empirical semivariance and cross-semivariance, which were used to draw maps using kriging. Majority of the soil properties and crop yields exhibited low and medium variability (coefficient of variation 5-70%). The effective ranges of the spatial dependence (the distance at which data are autocorrelated) for yields and all soil properties were 24.3-58.5m and 10.5-373m, respectively. Nugget to sill ratios showed that crop yields and soil properties were strongly spatially dependent except bulk density. Majority of the pairs in cross-semivariograms exhibited strong spatial interdependence. The ranges of the spatial dependence varied in plough layer between 54.6m for yield\u00d7pH up to 2433m for yield\u00d7silt content. Corresponding ranges in subsoil were 24.8m for crop yield\u00d7clay content in 2003 and 1404m for yield\u00d7bulk density. Kriging maps allowed separating sub-field area with the lowest yield and soil cation exchange capacity, organic carbon content and pH. This area had lighter color on the aerial photograph due to high content of the sand and low content of soil organic carbon. The results will help farmers at identifying sub-field areas for applying localized management practices to improve these soil properties and further spatial studies in larger scale.", "keywords": ["Crops", " Agricultural", "2. Zero hunger", "soil variability", "crop yields", "04 agricultural and veterinary sciences", "15. Life on land", "low productive area", "Soil", "cross-semivariograms", "kriging maps", "0401 agriculture", " forestry", " and fisheries", "Poland", "Edible Grain", "Environmental Monitoring"]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/29758908"}, {"rel": "related", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/Science%20of%20The%20Total%20Environment", "name": "related record", "description": "related record", "type": "application/json"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "29758908", "name": "item", "description": "29758908", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/29758908"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2018-08-01T00:00:00Z"}}, {"id": "50|od______2659::6cd4c5a070cdf75f4201430203a356b2", "type": "Feature", "geometry": null, "properties": {"license": "Open Access", "updated": "2026-08-25T16:23:34Z", "type": "Dataset", "title": "Spatial relationships among cereal yields and selected soil physical andchemical properties", "description": "Sandy soils occupy large area in Poland (about 50%) and in the world. This study aimed at determining spatialrelationships of cereal yields and the selected soil physical and chemical properties in three study years (2001\u22122003) on low productive sandy Podzol soil (Podlasie, Poland). The yields and soil properties in plough and sub-soil layers were determined at 72\u2013150 points. The test crops were: wheat, wheat and barley mixture and oats. Toexplore the spatial relationship between cereal yields and each soil property spatial statistics was used. The bestfitting models were adjusted to empirical semivariance and cross-semivariance, which were used to draw mapsusing kriging. Majority of the soil properties and crop yields exhibited low and medium variability (coefficient ofvariation 5\u201370%). The effective ranges of the spatial dependence (the distance at which data are autocorrelated)for yields and all soil properties were 24.3\u201358.5 m and 10.5\u2013373 m, respectively. Nugget to sill ratios showed thatcrop yields and soil properties were strongly spatially dependent except bulk density. Majority of the pairs incross-semivariograms exhibited strong spatial interdependence. The ranges of the spatial dependence variedin plough layer between 54.6 m for yield \u00d7 pH up to 2433 m for yield \u00d7 silt content. Corresponding ranges in sub-soil were 24.8 m for crop yield \u00d7 clay content in 2003 and 1404 m for yield \u00d7 bulk density. Kriging maps allowedseparating sub-field area with the lowest yield and soil cation exchange capacity, organic carbon content and pH.This area had lighter color on the aerial photograph due to high content of the sand and low content of soil or-ganic carbon. The results will help farmers at identifying sub-field areas for applying localized management prac-tices to improve these soil properties and further spatial studies in larger scale.", "keywords": ["2. Zero hunger", "Crop yields", "Kriging map", "Cross-semivariograms", "15. Life on land", "Soil variability", "Low productive area"], "contacts": [{"organization": "Lipiec Jerzy, Usowicz Bogus\u0142aw,", "roles": ["creator"]}]}, "links": [{"href": "https://doi.org/50|od______2659::6cd4c5a070cdf75f4201430203a356b2"}, {"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "50|od______2659::6cd4c5a070cdf75f4201430203a356b2", "name": "item", "description": "50|od______2659::6cd4c5a070cdf75f4201430203a356b2", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items/50|od______2659::6cd4c5a070cdf75f4201430203a356b2"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection", "name": "collection", "description": "Collection", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main"}], "time": {"date": "2018-04-04T00:00:00Z"}}], "links": [{"rel": "self", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "This document as GeoJSON", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=semivariograms&f=json", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "alternate", "type": "text/html", "title": "This document as HTML", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=semivariograms&f=html", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "collection", "type": "application/json", "title": "Collection URL", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"type": "application/geo+json", "rel": "first", "title": "items (first)", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=semivariograms&", "hreflang": "en-US"}, {"rel": "last", "type": "application/geo+json", "title": "items (last)", "href": "https://repository.soilwise-he.eu/cat/collections/metadata:main/items?keywords=semivariograms&offset=9", "hreflang": "en-US"}], "numberMatched": 9, "numberReturned": 9, "distributedFeatures": [], "timeStamp": "2026-08-26T02:36:02.562680Z"}